Vedic Hymns: I, 166. To the Maruts (the Storm-gods)

MANDALA I, HYMN 166. ASHTAKA II, ADHYÂYA 4, VARGA 1-3. To the Maruts (the Storm-gods). 1. Let us now proclaim for the robust 1 host, for the herald 2 of the powerful (Indra), their ancient greatness! O ye strong-voiced Maruts, you heroes, prove your powers on your march, as with a torch, as with a sword 3! 2. Like parents bringing a dainty to 1 their own 2 son, the wild (Maruts) play playfully at the sacrifices. The Rudras reach the worshipper with their protection, strong in themselves, they do not fail the sacrificer. 3. For him to whom the immortal guardians have given fulness of wealth, and who is himself a giver of oblations, the Maruts, who gladden men with the milk (of rain), pour out, like friends, many clouds. 4. You who have stirred 1 up the clouds with might, your horses rushed 2 forth, self-guided. All beings who dwell in houses 3 are afraid of you, your march is brilliant with your spears thrust forth. 5. When they whose march is terrible have caused the rocks to tremble 1, or when the manly Maruts have shaken the back of heaven, then every lord of the forest fears at your racing, each shrub flies out of your way 2, whirling like chariot-wheels 3. 6. You, O terrible Maruts, whose ranks are never broken, favourably 1 fulfil our prayer 2! Wherever your gory-toothed 3 lightning bites 4, it crunches 5 cattle, like a well-aimed bolt 6.

6. You, O terrible Maruts, whose ranks are never broken, favourably 1 fulfil our prayer 2! Wherever your gory-toothed 3 lightning bites 4, it crunches 5 cattle, like a well-aimed bolt 6. p. 210 7. The Maruts whose gifts are firm, whose bounties are never ceasing, who do not: revile 1, and who are highly praised at the sacrifices, they sing their song 2 for to drink the sweet juice: they know the first manly deeds of the hero (Indra). 8. The man whom you have guarded, O Maruts,—shield him with hundredfold strongholds from injury 1 and mischief,—the man whom you, O fearful, powerful singers, protect from reproach in the prosperity of his children. 9. On your chariots, O Maruts, there are all good things, strong weapons 1 are piled up clashing against each other. When you are on your journeys, you carry the rings 2 on your shoulders, and your axle turns the two wheels at once 3. 10. In their manly arms there are many good things, on their chests golden chains 1, flaring 2 ornaments, on their shoulders speckled deer-skins 3, on their fellies sharp edges 4; as birds spread their wings, they spread out splendours behind. 11. They, mighty by might, all-powerful powers 1, visible from afar like the heavens 2 with the stars, sweet-toned, soft-tongued singers with their mouths 3, the Maruts, united with Indra, shout all around. 12. This is your greatness 1 O well-born Maruts!—your bounty 3 extends far, as the sway 2 of Aditi 4. Not even 5 Indra in his scorn 6 can injure that bounty, on whatever man you have bestowed it for his good deeds.

12. This is your greatness 1 O well-born Maruts!—your bounty 3 extends far, as the sway 2 of Aditi 4. Not even 5 Indra in his scorn 6 can injure that bounty, on whatever man you have bestowed it for his good deeds. 13. This is your kinship (with us), O Maruts, that you, immortals, in former years have often protected the singer 1. Having through this prayer granted a hearing to man, all these heroes together have become well-known by their valiant deeds. p. 211 14. That we may long flourish, O Maruts, with your wealth, O ye racers, that our men may spread in the camp, therefore let me achieve the rite with these offerings. 15. May this praise, O Maruts, this song of Mândârya, the son of Mâna, the poet, ask you with food for offspring for ourselves! May we have an invigorating autumn, with quickening rain! p. 212 NOTES. This hymn is ascribed to Agastya, the reputed son of Mitrâvarunau, and brother of Vasishtha. The metre in verses 1-13 is Gagatî, in 14, 15 Trishtubh. No verse of this hymn occurs in SV., VS., AV., TS., TB. Verse 1. Note 1. Rabhasá, an adjective of rábhas, and this again from the root rabh, to rush upon a thing, â-rabh, to begin a thing. From this root rabh we have the Latin robur, in the general sense of strength, while in rabies the original meaning of impetuous motion has been more clearly preserved. The Greek λάβρος, too, as pointed out by Cowell, comes from this root. In the Vedic Sanskrit, derivatives from the root rabh convey the meaning both of quickness and of strength. Quickness in ancient languages frequently implies strength, and strength implies quickness, as we see, for instance, from the German snël, which, from meaning originally strong, comes to mean in modern German quick, and quick only. The German bald again, meaning soon, comes from the Gothic balths, the English bold. Thus we read:

I, 145, 3. sísuh â´ adatta sám rábhah. The child (Agni) acquired vigour. Indra is called rabhah-dâ´h, giver of strength; and rabhasá, vigorous, is applied not only to the Maruts, who in V, 58, 5, are called rábhishthâh, the most vigorous, but also to Agni, II, 10, 4, and to Indra, III, 31, 12. In the sense of rabid, furious, it occurs in X, 95, 14. ádha enam vríkâh rabhasâ´sah adyúh. May rabid wolves eat him! In the next verse rabhasá, the epithet of the wolves, is replaced by ásiva, which means unlucky, uncanny. In our hymn rabhasá occurs once more, and is applied there, in verse 10, to the añgí or glittering ornaments of the Maruts. Here Sâyana translates it by lovely, and it was most likely intended to convey the idea of lively or brilliant splendour, though it may mean also strong. See also IX, 96, 1. p. 213 Note 2. Ketú, derived from an old root ki, in Sanskrit ki, to perceive, from which also kitra, conspicuous, ken-speckled, beautiful, means originally that by which a thing is perceived or known, whether a sign, or a flag, or a herald. It is the Gothic haidu, species. It then takes the more general sense of light and splendour. In our passage, herald seems to me the most appropriate rendering, though B. and R. prefer the sense of banner. The Maruts come before Indra, they announce the arrival of Indra, they are the first of his army. Note 3. The real difficulty of our verse lies in the two comparisons aidhâ´-iva and yudhâ´-iva. Neither of them occurs again in the Rig-veda. B. and R. explain aidhâ´ as an instrumental of aídh, flaming, or flame, and derive it from the root idh, to kindle, with the preposition â. Professor Bollensen in his excellent article Zur Herstellung des Veda (Orient and Occident, vol. iii, p. 473) says: 'The analysis of the text given in the Pada, viz. aidhâ´-iva and yudhâ´-iva, is contrary to all sense. The common predicate is tavishâ´ni kartana, exercise your power, you roarers, i. e. blow as if you meant to kindle the fire on the altar, show your power as if you went to battle. We ought therefore to read aidhé va and yudhé | va. Both are infinitives, aidh is nothing but the root idh + â, to kindle, to light.' Now this is certainly a very ingenious explanation, but it rests on a supposition which I cannot consider as proved, viz. that in the Veda, as in Pâli, the comparative particle iva may be changed, as shown in the preface to the first edition, to va. It must be admitted that the two short syllables of iva are occasionally counted in the Veda as one, but yudhé-iva, though it might become yudhá iva, would never in the Veda become yudhéva.

As yudhâ´ occurs frequently in the Veda, we may begin by admitting that the parallel form aidh must be explained in analogy to yudhâ´. Now yúdh is a verbal noun and means fighting. We have the accusative yúdham, I, 53, 7; the genitive yudháh, VIII, 27, 17; the dative yudhé, I, 61, 13; the locative yudhí, I, 8, 3; the instrumental yudhâ´, I, 53, 7, &c.; loc. plur. yut-sú, I, 91, 21. As long as yúdh p. 214 retains the general predicative meaning of fighting, some of these cases may be called infinitives. But yúdh soon assumes not only the meaning of battle, battle-ground, but also of instrument of fighting, weapon. In another passage, X, 103, 2, yúdhah may be taken as a vocative plural, meaning fighters. Passages in which yúdh means clearly weapon, are, for instance, V, 52, 6. â´ rukmaíh â´ yudhâ´ nárah rishvâ´h rishtî´h asrikshata. With their bright chains, with their weapon, the tall men have stretched forth the spears. X, 55, 8. pîtvî´ sómasya diváh â´ vridhânáh sû´rah níh yudhâ´ adhamat dásyûn. The hero, growing, after drinking the Soma, blew away from the sky the enemies with his weapon. See also X, 103, 4. I therefore take yúdh in our passage also in the sense of weapon or sword, and, in accordance with this, I assign to aídh the meaning of torch. Whether aídh comes from idh with the preposition â, which, after all, would only give edh, or whether we have in the Sanskrit aídh the same peculiar strengthening which this very root shows in Greek and Latin a, would be difficult to decide. The torch of the Maruts is the lightning, the weapon the thunderbolt, and by both they manifest their strength; ferro et igne, as Ludwig remarks.

Wilson: We proclaim eagerly, Maruts, your ancient greatness, for (the sake of inducing) your prompt appearance, as the indication of (the approach of) the showerer (of benefits). Loud-roaring and mighty Maruts, you exert your vigorous energies for the advance (to the sacrifice), as if it was to battle. Verse 2. Note 1. That úpa can be construed with the accusative is clear from many passages: III, 35, 2. úpa imám yagñám â´ vahâtah índram. Bring Indra to this sacrifice! I, 25, 4. váyah ná vasatî´h úpa. As birds (fly) to their nests. p. 215 Note 2. Nítya, from ni + tya a, means originally what is inside, internus, then what is one's own; and is opposed to níshtya, from nis + tya, what is outside, strange, or hostile. Nítya has been well compared with nigá, literally eingeboren, then, like nítya, one's own. What is inside, or in a thing or place, is its own, is peculiar to it, does not move or change, and hence the secondary meanings of nítya, one's own, unchanging, eternal. Thus we find nítya used in the sense of internal or domestic: I, 73, 4. tám tvâ nárah dáme â´ nítyam iddhám ágne sákanta kshitíshu dhruvâ´su. Our men worshipped thee, O Agni, lighted within the house in safe places. This I believe to be a more appropriate rendering than if we take nítya in the sense of always, continuously lighted, or, as some propose, in the sense of eternal, everlasting. VII, 1, 2. dakshâ´yyah yáh dáme â´sa nítyah.

VII, 1, 2. dakshâ´yyah yáh dáme â´sa nítyah. Agni who is to be pleased within the house, i. e. as belonging to the house, and, in that sense, who is to be pleased always. Cf. I, 140, 7; 141, 2; X, 12, 2, and III, 25, 5, where nítyah, however, may have been intended as an adjective belonging to the vocative sûno. Most frequently nítya occurs with sûnú, I, 66, 1; 185, 2; tánaya, III, 15, 2; X, 39, 14; toká, II, 2, 11; âpí, VII, 88, 6; páti, I, 71, 1, and has always the meaning of one's own, very much like the later Sanskrit niga, which never occurs in the Rig-veda, though it makes its appearance in the Âtharvana. Níshtya, extraneus, occurs three times in the Rig-veda: VI, 75, 19. yáh nah sváh áranah yáh ka níshtyah gíghâmsati. Whoever wishes to hurt us, our own friend or a stranger from without. X, 133, 5. yáh nah indra abhi-dâ´sati sá-nâbhih yáh ka níshtyah. He who infests us, O Indra, whether a relative or a stranger. VIII, I, 13. mâ´ bhûma níshtyâh-iva índra tvád áranâh-iva. p. 216 Let us not be like outsiders, O Indra, not like strangers to thee. Wilson: Ever accepting the sweet (libation), as (they would) a son, they sport playfully at sacrifices, demolishing (all intruders). Ludwig: Wie einen nicht absterbenden Sohn das Madhu bringend. Verse 4. Note 1. Ávyata, a Vedic second aorist of vî (ag), to stir up, to excite. From it pravayana, a goad, pra-vetar, a driver. The Greek οἶ-σ-τρος, gad-fly, has been referred to the same root. See Fick, Wörterbuch, p. 170.

Note 1. Ávyata, a Vedic second aorist of vî (ag), to stir up, to excite. From it pravayana, a goad, pra-vetar, a driver. The Greek οἶ-σ-τρος, gad-fly, has been referred to the same root. See Fick, Wörterbuch, p. 170. Roth (Wenzel, Instrumental, p. 54) translates: 'While you quickly throw yourselves into the mists;' from a verb vyâ. Note 2. Adhragan, from dhrag, a root which, by metathesis of aspiration, would assume the form of dragh or dragh. In Greek, the final medial aspirate being hardened, reacts on the initial media, and changes it to t, as bâhu becomes πῆχυς, budh πυθ, bandh, πενθ. This would give us τρεχ, the Greek root for running, Goth. thrag-jan. Note 3. Harmyá is used here as an adjective of bhúvana, and can only mean living in houses. It does not, however, occur again in the same sense, though it occurs several times as a substantive, meaning house. Its original meaning is fire-pit, then hearth, then house, a transition of meaning analogous to that of aedes. Most of the ancient nations begin their kitchen with a fire-pit. ‘They dig a hole in the ground, take a piece of the animal's raw hide, and press it down with their hands close to the sides of the hole, which thus becomes a sort of pot or basin. This they fill with water, and they make a number of stones red-hot in a fire close by. The meat is put into the water, and the stones dropped in till the meat is boiled. Catlin describes the process as awkward and tedious, and says that since the Assinaboins had learnt from the Mandans to make pottery, and had been supplied with vessels by the traders, they had entirely done away the custom, “excepting at public festivals; where they seem, like all others of the human family, to take pleasure in cherishing and perpetuating

p. 217 their ancient customs a.”’ This pit was called harmyá b or gharmá, which is the Latin formus. Thus we read: VII, 56, 16. té harmye-sthâ´h sísavah ná subhrâ´h. The Maruts bright like boys standing by the hearth. From meaning fire-pit, or hearth, harmyá afterwards takes the more general sense of house: VII, 55, 6. téshâm sám hanmah akshâ´ni yáthâ idám harmyám táthâ. We shut their eyes as we shut this house (possibly, this oven). VII, 76, 2. pratîkî´ â´ agât ádhi harmyébhyah. The dawn comes near, over the house-tops. X, 46, 3. gâtáh â´ harmyéshu. Agni, born in the houses. X, 73, 10. manyóh iyâya harmyéshu tasthau. He came from Manyu, he remained in the houses. In some of these passages harmyá might be taken in the sense of householder; but as harmyá in VII, 55, 6, has clearly the meaning of a building, it seems better not to assign to it unnecessarily any new significations. If harmya or *harma meant originally a fire-pit, then a hearth, a house, we see the close connection between harma and gharma, harmya and gharmya. Thus by the side of harmyeshtha we find gharmyeshtha (RV. X, 106, 5). We find gharma meaning, not only heat in general, but fire-pit, hearth; and we find the same word used for what we should call the pit, a place of torture and punishment from which the gods save their worshippers, or into which they throw the evil-doers. V, 32, 5. yûyutsantam támasi harmyé dhâ´h.

V, 32, 5. yûyutsantam támasi harmyé dhâ´h. p. 218 When thou, Indra, hadst placed Sushna, who was anxious to fight, in the darkness of the pit. In the next verse we find asûryé támasi, in the ghastly darkness. VIII, 5, 23. yuvám kánvâya nâsatyâ ápi-riptâya harmyé sásvat ûtî´h dasasyathah. You, Nâsatyas, always grant your aid to Kanva when thrown into the pit. This fiery pit into which Atri is thrown, and whence he, too, was saved by the Asvins, is likewise called gharmá, I, 112, 7; 119, 6; VIII, 73, 3; X, 80, 3. Lastly we find: X, 114, 10. yadâ´ yamáh bhávati harmyé hitáh. When Yama is seated in the house, or in the nether world. When the Pitars, too, the spirits of the departed, the Manes, are called gharma-sád, this is probably intended to mean, dwelling on the hearth (X, 15, 9 and 10), and not dwelling in the abode of Yama. Kuhn, Zeitschrift, vol. ii, p. 234: 'Die ihr die Luft erfüllt mit eurer Kraft, hervorstürmt ihr selbst-gelenkten Laufes.' Verse 5. Note 1. Nad certainly means to sound, and the causative might be translated by 'to make cry or shriek.' If we took párvata in the sense of cloud, we might translate, 'When you make the clouds roar;' if we took párvata for mountain, we might, with Professor Wilson, render the passage by 'When your brilliant coursers make the mountains echo.' But nad, like other roots which afterwards take the meaning of sounding, means originally to vibrate, to shake; and if we compare analogous passages where nad occurs, we shall see that in our verse, too, the Vedic poet undoubtedly meant nad to be taken in that sense:

VIII, 20, 5. ákyutâ kit vah ágman â´ nâ´nadati párvatâsah vánaspátih, bhû´mih yâ´meshu regate. At your racing even things that are immovable vibrate, the rocks, the lord of the forest; the earth quivers on your ways. (See I, 37, 7, note I.) Grassmann here translates nadáyanta by erschüttern, but in VIII, 20, 5 by erdröhnt. Note 2. See I, 37, 7, note 1. p. 219 Note 3. Rathiyántî-iva does not occur again. Sâyana explains it, like a woman who wishes for a chariot, or who rides in a chariot. I join it with óshadhi, and take it in the sense of upamânâd âkâre (Pân. III, 1, 10), i. e. to behave like or to be like a chariot, whether the comparison is meant to express simply the quickness of chariots or the whirling of their wheels. The Pada has rathiyántî, whereas the more regular form is that of the Samhitâ, rathîyántî. Cf. Prâtisâkhya, 587. Verse 6. Note 1. Su-ketúnâ, the instrumental of su-ketú, kindness, good-mindedness, favour. This word occurs in the instrumental only, and always refers to the kindness of the gods; not, like sumatí, to the kindness of the worshipper also: I, 79, 9. â´ nah agne su-ketúnâ rayím visvâ´yu-poshasam, mârdîkám dhehi gîváse. Give us, O Agni, through thy favour wealth which supports our whole life, give us grace to live. I, 127, 11. sáh nah nédishtham dádrisânah â´ bhara ágne devébhih sá-kanâh su-ketúnâ maháh râyáh su-ketûnâ. Thou, O Agni, seen close to us, bring to us, in union with the gods, by thy favour, great riches, by thy favour!

Thou, O Agni, seen close to us, bring to us, in union with the gods, by thy favour, great riches, by thy favour! I, 159, 5. asmábhyam dyâvâprithivî (íti) su-ketúnâ rayím dhattam vásu-mantam sata-gvínam. Give to us, O Dyâvâprithivî, by your favour, wealth, consisting of treasures and many flocks. V, 51, 11. svastí dyâvâprithivî (íti) su-ketúnâ. Give us, O Dyâvâprithivî, happiness through your favour! V, 64, 2. tâ´ bâhávâ su-ketúnâ prá yantam asmai árkate. Stretch out your arms with kindness to this worshipper! In one passage of the ninth Mandala (IX, 65, 30) we meet with su-ketúnam, as an accusative, referring to Soma, the gracious, and this would pre-suppose a substantive ketúna, which, however, does not exist. Note 2. Sumatí has, no doubt, in most passages in the Rig-veda, the meaning of favour, the favour of the gods. 'Let us obtain your favour, let us be in your favour,' are familiar expressions of the Vedic poets. But there are also numerous passages where that meaning is inapplicable, and p. 220 where, as in our passage, we must translate sumatí by prayer or desire. In the following passages sumatí is clearly used in its original sense of favour, blessing, or even gift: I, 73, 6 (7). su-matím bhíkshamânâh. Begging for thy favour. I, 171, 1. su-ukténa bhikshe su-matím turâ´nâm. With a hymn I beg for the favour of the quick Maruts. I, 114, 3. asyâ´ma te su-matím. May we obtain thy favour! Cf. I, 114, 9:

May we obtain thy favour! Cf. I, 114, 9: I, 114, 4. su-matím ít vayám asya â´ vrinîmahe. We choose his favour. Cf. III, 33, 1. I, 117, 23. sádâ kavî (íti) su-matím â´ kake vâm. I always desire your favour, O ye wise Asvins. I, 156, 3. maháh te vishno (íti) su-matím bhagâmahe. May we, O Vishnu, enjoy the favour of thee, the mighty! Bhiksh, to beg, used above, is an old desiderative form of bhag, and means to wish to enjoy. III, 4, 1. su-matím râsi vásvah. Thou grantest the favour of wealth. VII, 39, 1. ûrdhváh agníh su-matím vásvah asret. The lighted fire went up for the favour of wealth. Cf. VII, 60, 11; IX, 97, 26. III, 57, 6. váso (íti) râ´sva su-matím visvá-ganyâm. Grant us, O Vasu, thy favour, which is glorious among men! VII, 100, 2. tvâm vishno (íti) su-matím visvá-ganyâm—dâh. Mayest thou, Vishnu, give thy favour, which is glorious among men! X, 11, 7. yáh te agne su-matím mártah ákshat. The mortal who obtained thy favour, O Agni. II, 34, 15. arvâ´kî sâ´ marutah yâ´ vah ûtíh ó (íti) sú vâsrâ´-iva su-matíh gigâtu. Your help, O Maruts, which is to usward, your favour may it come near, like a cow! VIII, 22, 4. asmâ´n ákkha su-matíh vâm subhah patî (íti) â dhenúh-iva dhâvatu. May your favour, O Asvins, hasten towards us, like a cow! But this meaning is by no means the invariable meaning of sumatí, and it will easily be seen that, in the following p. 221 passages, the word must be translated by prayer. Thus when Sarasvatî is called (I, 3, 11) kétantî su-matînâ´m, this can only mean she who knows of the prayers, as before she is called kodayitrî´ sûnrítânâm, she who excites songs of praise:

passages, the word must be translated by prayer. Thus when Sarasvatî is called (I, 3, 11) kétantî su-matînâ´m, this can only mean she who knows of the prayers, as before she is called kodayitrî´ sûnrítânâm, she who excites songs of praise: I, 151, 7. ákkha gírah su-matím gantam asma-yû´ (íti). Come towards the songs, towards the prayer, you who are longing for us. Cf. X, 20, 10. II, 43, 3. tûshnî´m â´sînah su-matím kikiddhi nah. Sitting quiet, listen, O Sakuni (bird), to our prayer! V, 1, 10. â´ bhándishthasya su-matím kikiddhi. Take notice of the prayer of thy best praiser! Cf. V, 33, I. VII, 18, 4. â´ nah índrah su-matím gantu ákkha. May Indra come to our prayer! VII, 31, 10. prá-ketase prá su-matím krinudhvam. Make a prayer for the wise god! IX, 96, 2. su-matím yâti ákkha. He (Soma) goes near to the prayer. X, 148, 3. rishînâm víprah su-matím kakânáh. Thou, the wise, desiring the prayer of the Rishis. VIII, 22, 6. tâ´ vâm adyá sumatí-bhih subhah patî (íti) ásvinâ prá stuvîmahi. Let us praise to-day the glorious Asvins with our prayers. IX, 74, 1. tám îmahe su-matî´. We implore him with prayer. In our passage the verb pipartana, fill or fulfil, indicates in what sense sumatí ought to be taken. Su-matím pipartana is no more than kâ´mam pipartana, fulfil our desire! See VII, 62, 3. â´ nah kâ´mam pûpurantu; I, 158, 2. kâmapréna-iva mánasâ. On sumná, see Burnouf, Études, p. 91, and Aufrecht, in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, vol. iv, p. 274.

In our passage the verb pipartana, fill or fulfil, indicates in what sense sumatí ought to be taken. Su-matím pipartana is no more than kâ´mam pipartana, fulfil our desire! See VII, 62, 3. â´ nah kâ´mam pûpurantu; I, 158, 2. kâmapréna-iva mánasâ. On sumná, see Burnouf, Études, p. 91, and Aufrecht, in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, vol. iv, p. 274. Note 3. Krívih-datî has been a crux to ancient and modern interpreters. It is mentioned as a difficult word in the Nighantu, and all that Yâska has to say is that it means possessed of cutting teeth (Nir. VI, 30. krivirdatî vikartanadantî). Professor Roth, in his note to this passage, says that krivi can never have the meaning of well, which is ascribed to it in the Nighantu III, 23, but seems rather to mean an animal, perhaps the wild boar, κάπρος, with metathesis of v and r. He translates our passage: 'Where p. 222 your lightning with boar-teeth tears.' In his Dictionary, however, he only says, 'krivis, perhaps the name of an animal, and dant, tooth.' Sâyana contents himself with explaining krívirdatî by vikshepanasîladantî, having teeth that scatter about. My own translation is founded on the supposition that krívis, the first portion of krívirdatî, has nothing to do with krivi, but is a dialectic variety of kravís, raw flesh, the Greek κρέας, Latin caro, cruor. It means what is raw, bloody, or gory. From it the adjective krûra, horrible, cruentus (Curtius, Grundzüge, p. 142; Kuhn, Zeitschrift, vol. ii, p. 235). A name of the goddess Durgâ in later Sanskrit is krûradantî, and with a similar conception the lightning, I believe, is here called krívirdatî, with gory teeth.

Note 4. It should be observed that in rádati the simile of the teeth of the lightning is carried on. For rádati may be supposed to have had in the Veda, too, the original meaning of râdere and rôdere, to scratch, to gnaw. Rada and radana in the later Sanskrit mean tooth. It is curious, however, that there is no other passage in the Rig-veda where rad clearly means to bite. It means to cut, in I, 61, 12. góh ná párva ví rada tiraskâ´. Cut his joint through, as the joint of an ox. But in most passages where rad occurs in the Veda, it has the meaning of giving. It is not the same which we have in the Zend râd, to give, and which Justi rightly identifies with the root râdh. But rad, to divide, may, like the German theilen in zutheilen, have taken the meaning of giving. Greek δαίω means to divide, but yields δαίς, portion, meal, just as Sanskrit day, to divide, yields dâyas, share, i. e. inheritance. This meaning is evident in the following passages: VII, 79, 4. tâ´vat ushah râ´dhah asmábhyam râsva yâ´vat stotrí-bhyah áradah grinânâ´. Grant us, Ushas, so much wealth as thou hast given to the singers, when praised. I, 116, 7. kakshî´vate aradatam púram-dhim. You gave wisdom to Kakshîvat. I, 169, 8. ráda marút-bhih surúdhah gó-agrâh. p. 223 Give to the Maruts gifts, rich in cattle. VII, 62, 3. ví nah sahásram surúdhah radantu. May they (the gods) give to us a thousand gifts! I, 117, 11. vâ´gam víprâya—rádantâ.

I, 117, 11. vâ´gam víprâya—rádantâ. Giving spoil to the sage! VI, 61, 6. ráda pûshâ´-iva nah saním. Give us, Sarasvatî, wealth, like Pûshan! IX, 93, 4. rada índo (íti) rayím. Give us, O Indra, wealth! VII, 32, 18. rada-vaso (íti). Indra, thou who givest wealth! In many passages, however, this verb rad is connected with words meaning way or path, and it then becomes a question whether it simply means to grant a way, or to cut a way open for some one. In Zend, too, the same idiom occurs, and Professor Justi explains it by 'prepare a way.' I subjoin the principal passages: VI, 30, 3. yát âbhyah áradah gâtúm indra. That thou hast cut a way for them (the rivers). Cf. VII, 74, 4. IV, 19, 2. prá vartanî´h aradah visvá-dhenâh. Thou (Indra) hast cut open the paths for all the cows. X, 75, 2. prá te aradat várunah yâ´tave patháh. Varuna cut the paths for thee to go. VII, 87, 1. rádat patháh várunah sû´ryâya. Varuna cut paths for Sûrya. V, 80, 3. patháh rádantî suvitâ´ya devî´. She, the dawn, cutting open the paths for welfare. VII, 60, 4. yásmai âdityâ´h ádhvanah rádanti. For whom the Âdityas cut roads. II, 30, 2. patháh rádantîh—dhûnayah yanti ártham. Cutting their paths, the rivers go to their goal. This last verse seems to show that the cutting open of a road is really the idea expressed by rad in all these passages. And thus we find the rivers themselves saying that Indra cut them out or delivered them:

This last verse seems to show that the cutting open of a road is really the idea expressed by rad in all these passages. And thus we find the rivers themselves saying that Indra cut them out or delivered them: III, 33, 6. índrah asmâ´n aradat vágra-bâhuh. Cf. X, 89, 7. Note 5. Rinâ´ti, like the preceding expressions krívirdatî and rádati, is not chosen at random, for though it has the p. 224 general meaning of crushing or destroying, it is used by the Vedic poets with special reference to the chewing or crunching by means of the teeth. For instance, I, 148, 4. purû´ni dasmáh ní rinâti gámbhaih. Agni crunches many things with his jaws. I, 127, 4. sthirâ´ kit ánnâ ní rinâti ógasâ. Even tough morsels he (Agni) crunches fiercely. In a more general sense we find it used, V, 41, 10. sokíh-kesah ní rinâti vánâ. Agni with flaming hair swallows or destroys the forests. IV, 19, 3. áhim vágrena ví rinâh. Thou destroyedst Ahi with the thunderbolt. X, 120, 1. sadyáh gagñânáh ní rinâti sátrûn. As soon as born he destroys his enemies. Note 6. Súdhitâ-iva barhánâ. I think the explanation of this phrase given by Sâyana may be retained. He explains súdhitâ by suhitâ, i. e. sushthu preritâ, well thrown, well levelled, and barhánâ by hatis, tatsâdhanâ hetir vâ, a blow or its instrument, a weapon. Professor Roth takes barhánâ as an instrumental, used adverbially, in the sense of powerfully, but he does not explain in what sense súdhitâ-iva ought then to be taken. We cannot well refer it to didyút, lightning, on account of the iva, which requires something that can form a simile of the lightning. Nor is su-dhitâ ever used as a substantive so as to take the place of svádhitîva. Sú-dhita has apparently many meanings, but they all centre in one common conception. Sú-dhita means well placed, of a thing which is at rest, well arranged, well ordered, secure; or it means well sent, well thrown, of a thing which has been in motion. Applied to human beings, it means well disposed or kind.

III, 23, 1. níh-mathitah sú-dhitah â´ sadhá-sthe. Agni produced by rubbing, and well placed in his abode. VII, 42, 4. sú-prîtah agníh sú-dhitah dáme â´. Agni, who is cherished and well placed in the house. III, 29, 2. arányoh ní-hitah gâtá-vedâh gárbhah-iva sú-dhitah garbhínîshu. Agni placed in the two fire-sticks, well placed like an embryo in the mothers. Cf. X, 27, 16. p. 225 VIII, 60, 4. abhí práyâmsi sú-dhitâ â´ vaso (íti) gahi. Come, O Vasu, to these well-placed offerings. Cf. I, 135, 4; VI, 15, 15; X, 53, 2. X, 70, 8. sû-dhitâ havî´mshi. The well-placed offerings. IV, 2, 10 (adhvarám). VII, 7, 3 (barhíh). As applied to â´yus, life, súdhita may be translated by well established, safe: II, 27, 10. asyâ´ma â´yûmshi sú-dhitâni pû´rvâ. May we obtain the happy long lives of our forefathers. IV, 50, 8. sáh ít ksheti sú-dhitah ókasi své. That man dwells secure in his own house. Applied to a missile weapon, súdhita may mean well placed, as it were, well shouldered, well held, before it is thrown; or well levelled, well aimed, when it is thrown: I, 167, 3. mimyáksha yéshu sú-dhitâ—rishtíh. To whom the well held spear sticks fast. VI, 33, 3. tvám tâ´n indra ubháyân amítrân dâ´sâ vritrâ´ni â´ryâ ka sûra, vádhîh vánâ-iva sú-dhitebhih átkaih. Thou, Indra, O hero, struckest both enemies, the barbarous and the Aryan fiends, like forests with well-aimed weapons. Applied to a poem, súdhita means well arranged or perfect:

Applied to a poem, súdhita means well arranged or perfect: I, 140, 11. idám agne sú-dhitam dúh-dhitât ádhi priyâ´t ûm (íti) kit mánmanah préyah astu te. May this perfect prayer be more agreeable to thee than an imperfect one, though thou likest it. VII, 32, 13. mántram ákharvam sú-dhitam. A poem, not mean, well contrived. As applied to men, súdhita means very much the same as hitá, well disposed, kind: IV, 6, 7. ádha mitráh ná sú-dhitah pâvakáh agníh dîdâya mâ´nushîshu vikshú. Then, like a kind friend, Agni shone among the children of man. V, 3, 2. mitrám sú-dhitam. VI, 15, 2. mitrám ná yám sú-dhitam. VIII, 23, 8. mitrám ná gáne sú-dhitam ritá-vani. p. 226 X, 115, 7. mitrâ´sah ná yé sú-dhitâh. At last sú-dhita, without reference to human beings, takes the general sense of kind, good: III, 11, 8. pári vísvâni sú-dhitâ agnéh asyâma mánma-bhih. May we obtain through our prayers all the goods of Agni. Here, however, práyâmsi may have to be supplied, and in that case this passage, too, should be classed with those mentioned above, VIII, 60, 4, &c. If then we consider that súdhita, as applied to weapons, means well held or well aimed, we can hardly doubt that barhánâ is here, as Sâyana says, some kind of weapon. I should derive it from barhayati, to crush, which we have, for instance, I, 133, 5. pisáṅga-bhrishtim ambhrinám pisâ´kim indra sám mrina, sárvam rákshah ní barhaya. Pound together the fearful Pisâki with his fiery weapons, strike down every Rakshas.

Pound together the fearful Pisâki with his fiery weapons, strike down every Rakshas. II, 23, 8. bríhaspate deva-nídah ní barhaya. Brihaspati strike down the scoffers of the gods. Cf. VI, 61, 3. Barhánâ would therefore mean a weapon intended to crush an enemy, a block of stone, it may be, or a heavy club, and in that sense barhánâ occurs at least once more: VIII, 63, 7. yát pâ´ñka-ganyayâ visâ´ índre ghóshâh ásrikshata, ástrinât barhánâ vipáh. When shouts have been sent up to Indra by the people of the five clans, then the club scattered the spears; or, then he scattered the spears with his club. In other passages Professor Roth is no doubt right when he assigns to barhánâ an adverbial meaning, but I do not think that this meaning would be appropriate in our verse. Grassmann also translates, 'ein wohlgezielter Pfeil.' Verse 7. Note 1. Alâtrinâ´sah, a word which occurs but once more, and which had evidently become unintelligible even at the p. 227 time of Yâska. He (Nir. VI, 2) explains it by alamâtardano meghah, the cloud which opens easily. This, at least, is the translation given by Professor Roth, though not without hesitation. Alamâtardanah, as a compound, is explained by the commentator as âtardanaparyâptah, alam âtardayitum udakam, i. e. capable of letting off the water. But Devarâgayagvan explains it differently. He says: alam paryâptam âtardanam himsâ yasya, bahûdakatvâkkhabalo megho viseshyate, i. e. whose injuring is great; the dark cloud is so called because it contains much water. Sâyana. too, attempts several explanations. In III, 30, 10, he seems to derive it from trih, to kill, not, like Yâska, from trid, and he explains its meaning as the cloud which is exceedingly hurt by reason of its holding so much water. In our passage he explains it either as anâtrina, free from injury, or good hurters of enemies, or good givers of rewards.

From all this I am afraid we gain nothing. Let us now see what modern commentators have proposed in order to discover an appropriate meaning in this word. Professor Roth suggests that the word may be derived from râ, to give, and the suffix trina, and the negative particle, thus meaning, one who does not give or yield anything. But, if so, how is this adjective applicable to the Maruts, who in this very verse are praised for their generosity? Langlois in our passage translates, 'heureux de nos louanges;' in III, 30, 10, qui laissait flétrir les plantes.' Wilson in our passage translates, 'devoid of malevolence;' but in III, 30, 10, 'heavy.' I do not pretend to solve all these difficulties, but I may say this in defence of my own explanation that it fulfils the condition of being applicable both to the Maruts and to the demon Bala. The suffix trina is certainly irregular, and I should much prefer to write alâtrina, for in that case we might derive lâtrin from lâtra, and to this lâtra, i. e. râtra, I. should ascribe the sense of barking. The root rai or râ means to bark, and has been connected by Professor Aufrecht with Latin rire, inrire, and possibly inritare a, p. 228 thus showing a transition of meaning from barking, to provoking or attacking. The same root râ explains also the Latin lâtrare, to bark, allatrare, to assail; and, whatever ancient etymologists may say to the contrary, the Latin latro, an assailer. The old derivation 'latrones eos antiqui dicebant, qui conducti militabant, ἀπὸ τῆς λατρείας,' seems to me one of those etymologies in which the scholars of Rome, who had learnt a little Greek, delighted as much as scholars who know a little Sanskrit delight in finding some plausible derivation for any Greek or Latin word in Sanskrit. I know that Curtius (Grundzüge, p. 326) and Corssen (Kritische Nachträge, p. 239) take a different view; but a foreign word, derived from λάτρον, pay, hire, would never have proved so fertile as latro has been in Latin.

If then we could write alâtrinâ´sah, we should have an appropriate epithet of the Maruts, in the sense of not assailing or not reviling, in fact, free from malevolence, as Wilson translated the word, or rather Sâyana's explanation of it, âtardanarahita. What gives me some confidence in this explanation is this, that it is equally applicable to the other passage where alâtrina occurs, III, 30, 10: alâtrináh valáh indra vragáh góh purâ´ hántoh bháyamânah ví âra. Without barking did Vala, the keeper of the cow, full of tear, open, before thou struckest him. If it should be objected that vragá means always stable, and is not used again in the sense of keeper, one might reply that vragáh, in the nom. sing., occurs in this one single passage only, and that bháyamânah, fearing, clearly implies a personification. Otherwise, one might translate: 'Vala was quiet, O Indra, and the stable of the cow came open, full of fear, before thou struckest.' The meaning of alâtriná would remain the same, the not-barking being here used as a sign that Indra's enemy was cowed, and no longer inclined to revile or defy the power of Indra. Hom. hymn. in Merc. 145, οὐδὲ κύνες λελάκοντο. Note 2. See I, 38, 15, note 1, page 95. p. 229 Verse 8. Note 1. Abhí-hruti seems to have the meaning of assault, injury, insult. It occurs but once, but abhí-hrut, a feminine substantive with the same meaning, occurs several times. The verb hru, which is not mentioned in the Dhâtupâtha, but has been identified with hvar, occurs in our hymn, verse 12:

Note 1. Abhí-hruti seems to have the meaning of assault, injury, insult. It occurs but once, but abhí-hrut, a feminine substantive with the same meaning, occurs several times. The verb hru, which is not mentioned in the Dhâtupâtha, but has been identified with hvar, occurs in our hymn, verse 12: I, 128, 5. sáh nah trâsate duh-itâ´t abhi-hrútah sámsât aghâ´t abhi-hrútah. He protects us from evil, from assault, from evil speaking, from assault. X, 63, 11. trâ´yadhvam nah duh-évâyâh abhi-hrútah. Protect us from mischievous injury! I, 189, 6. abhi-hrútâm ási hí deva vishpát. For thou, god, art the deliverer from all assaults. Vishpát, deliverer, from vi and spas, to bind. Ví-hruta, which occurs twice, means evidently what has been injured or spoiled: VIII, 1, 12. íshkartâ ví-hrutam púnar (iti). He who sets right what has been injured. Cf. VIII, 20, 26. Ávi-hruta again clearly means uninjured, intact, entire: V, 66, 2. tâ´ hí kshatrám ávi-hrutam—â´sâte. For they both have obtained uninjured power. X, 170, 1. â´yuh dádhat yagñá-patau ávi-hrutam. Giving uninjured life to the lord of the sacrifice. Verse 9. Note 1. Tavishá certainly means strength, and that it is used in the plural in the sense of acts of strength, we can see from the first verse of our hymn and other passages. But when we read that tavishâ´ni are placed on the chariots of the Maruts, just as before bhadrâ´, good things, food, &c., are mentioned, it is clear that so abstract a meaning as strength or powers would not be applicable here. We might take it in the modern sense of forces, i. e. your armies, your companions are on your chariots, striving with each other; but as the word is a neuter, weapons, as the means

p. 230 of strength, seemed a preferable rendering. As to mithaspridhya, see I, 119, 3, p. 164. Note 2. The rendering of this passage must depend on the question whether the khâdís, whatever they are, can be carried on the shoulders or not. We saw before (p. 120) that khâdís were used both as ornaments and as weapons, and that, when used as weapons, they were most likely rings or quoits with sharp edges. There is at least one other passage where these khâdís are said to be worn on the shoulders: VII, 56, 13. ámseshu â´ marutah khâdáyah vah vákshah-su rukmâ´h upa-sisriyânâ´h. On your shoulders are the quoits, on your chests the golden chains are fastened. In other places the khâdís are said to be in the hands, hásteshu, but this would only show that they are there when actually used for fighting. Thus we read: I, 168, 3. â´ eshâm ámseshu rambhínî-iva rarabhe, hásteshu khâdíh ka kritíh ka sám dadhe. To their shoulders there clings as if a clinging wife, in their hands the quoit is held and the dagger. In V, 58, 2, the Maruts are called khâ´di-hasta, holding the quoits in their hands. There is one passage which was mentioned before (p. 112), where the khâdís are said to be on the feet of the Maruts, and on the strength of this passage Professor Roth proposes to alter prá-patheshu to prá-padeshu, and to translate, 'The khâdís are on your forefeet.' I do not think this emendation necessary. Though we do not know the exact shape and character of the khâdí, we know that it was a weapon, most likely a ring, occasionally used for ornament, and carried along either on the feet or on the shoulders, but in actual battle held in the hand. The weapon which Vishnu holds in one of his right hands, the so-called kakra, may be the modern representation of the ancient khâdí. What, however, is quite certain is this, that khâdí in the Veda never means food, as Sâyana optionally interprets it. This interpretation is accepted by Wilson, who translates, 'At your resting-places on the road refreshments (are ready).' Nay, he

p. 231 goes on in a note to use this passage as a proof of the advanced civilisation of India at the time of the Vedic Rishis. 'The expression,' he says, 'is worthy of note, as indicating the existence of accommodations for the use of travellers: the prapatha is the choltri of the south of India, the sarái of the Mohammedans, a place by the road-side where the travellers may find shelter and provisions.' Note 3. This last passage shows that the poet is really representing to himself the Maruts as on their journey, and he therefore adds, 'your axle turns the two (IV, 30, 2) wheels together,' which probably means no more than, 'your chariot is going smoothly or quickly.' Though the expression seems to us hardly correct, yet one can well imagine how the axle was supposed to turn the wheels as the horses were drawing the axle, and the axle acted on the wheels. Anyhow, no other translation seems possible. Samáyâ in the Veda means together, at once, and is the Greek (ὁμῇ, generally ὁμοῦ or ὁμῶς, the Latin simul. Cf. I, 56, 6; 73, 6; 113, 10; 163, 3; VII, 66, 15; IX, 75, 4; 85, 5; 97, 56. Vrit means to turn, and is frequently used with reference to the wheels: VIII, 46, 23. dása syâvâ´h—nemím ní vavrituh. The ten black horses turn down the felly or the wheel. IV, 30, 2. satrâ´ te ánu krishtáyah vísvâh kakrâ´-iva vavrituh. All men turn always round thee, like wheels. That the Âtmanepada of vrit may be used in an active sense we see from

That the Âtmanepada of vrit may be used in an active sense we see from I, 191, 15. tátah vishám prá vavrite. I turn the poison out from here. All the words used in this sentence are very old words, and we can with few exceptions turn them into Greek or Latin. In Latin we should have axis vos(ter) circos simul divertit. In Greek ἄξων ὑ(μῶν) κύκλω ὁμῇ … Verse 10. Note 1. See I, 64, 4, note 1, page 111. Note 2. See I, 166, 1, note 1, page 212. p. 232 Note 3. On éta in the sense of fallow deer, or, it may be, antelope, see I, 165, 5, note 2, page 196. Éta originally means variegated, and thus becomes a name of any speckled deer, it being difficult to say what exact species is meant. Sâyana in our passage explains étâh by suklavarnâ mâlâh, many-coloured wreaths or chains, which may be right. Yet the suggestion of Professor Roth that étâh, deer, stands here for the skins of fallow deer, is certainly more poetical, and quite in accordance with the Vedic idiom, which uses, for instance, go, cow, not only in the sense of milk,—that is done even in more homely English,—but also for leather, and thong. It is likewise in accordance with what we know of the earliest dress of the Vedic Indians, that deer-skins should here be mentioned. We learn from Âsvalâyana's Grihya-sûtras, of which we now possess an excellent edition by Professor Stenzler, and a reprint of the text and commentary by Râma Nârâyana Vidyâratna, in the Bibliotheca Indica, that a boy when he was brought to his tutor, i. e. from the eighth to possibly the twenty-fourth year, had to be well combed, and attired in a new dress. A Brâhmana should wear the skin of an antelope (aineya), the Kshatriya the skin of a deer (raurava), the Vaisya the skin of a goat (âga). If they wore dresses, that of the Brâhmana should be dark red (kâshâya), that of the Kshatriya bright red (mâñgishtha), that of the Vaisya yellow (hâridra). The girdle of the Brâhmana should be of Muñga grass, that of the Kshatriya a bow-string, that of the Vaisya made of sheep's wool. The same regulations occur in other Sûtras, as, for instance, the Dharma-sûtras of the Âpastambîyas and Gautamas, though there are certain characteristic differences in each, which may be due either to local or to chronological causes. Thus according to the Âpastambîya-sûtras, which have been published by Professor Bühler, the Brâhmana may wear the skin of the harina deer, or that of the antelope (aineyam), but the latter must be from the black antelope (krishnam), and, a proviso is added, that if a man wears the black antelope skin, he must never spread it out to sit or sleep on it. As materials for the dress, Âpastamba

p. 233 allows sana, hemp a, or kshumâ, flax, and he adds that woollen dresses are allowed to all castes, as well as the kambala (masc.), which seems to be any cloth made of vegetable substances (darbhâdinirmitam kîram kambalam). He then adds a curious remark, which would seem to show p. 234 that the Brâhmanas preferred skins, and the Kshatriyas clothes, for he says that those who wish well to the Brâhmanas should wear agina, skins, and those who wish well to the Kshatriyas should wear vastra, clothes, and those who wish well to both should wear both, but, in that case, the skin should always form the outer garment. The Dharma-sûtras of the Gautamas, which were published in India, prescribe likewise for the Brâhmana the black antelope skin, and allow clothes of hemp or linen (sânakshaumakîra) as well as kutapas (woollen cloth) for all. What is new among the Gautamas is, that they add the kârpâsa, the cotton dress, which is important as showing an early knowledge of this manufacture. The kârpâsa dress occurs once more as a present to be given to the Potar priest (Âsv. Srauta-sûtras IX, 4), and was evidently considered as a valuable present, taking precedence of the kshaumî or linen dress. It is provided that the cotton dress should not be dyed, for this, I suppose, is the meaning of avikrita. Immediately after, however, it is said, that some authorities say the dress should be dyed red (kâshâyam apy eke), the very expression which occurred in Âpastamba, and that, in that case, the red for the Brâhmana's dress should be taken from the bark of trees (vârksha). Manu, who here, as elsewhere, simply paraphrases the ancient Sûtras, says, II, 41:

kârshnarauravabâstâni karmâni brahmakârinah vasîrann ânupûrvyena sânakshaumâvikâni ka. 'Let Brahmakârins wear (as outer garments) the skins of the black antelope, the deer, the goat, (as under garments) dresses of hemp, flax, and sheep's wool, in the order of the three castes.' The Sanskrit name for a dressed skin is agina, a word which does not occur in the Rig-Veda, but which, if Bopp is right in deriving it from agá, goat, as αἰγίς from αἴξ, would have meant originally, not skin in general, but a goat-skin. The skins of the éta, here ascribed to the Maruts, would be identical with the aineya, which Âsvalâyana ascribes to the Brâhmana, not, as we should expect, to the Kshatriya, if, as has been supposed, aineya is derived from ena, which is a secondary form, particularly in the p. 235 feminine enî, of eta. There is, however, another word, eda, a kind of sheep, which, but for Festus, might be haedus, and by its side ena, a kind of antelope. These two forms pre-suppose an earlier erna or arna, and point therefore in a different direction, though hardly to ἄρνες. Note 4. I translate kshurá by sharp edges, but it might have been translated literally by razors, for, strange as it may sound, razors were known, not only during the Vedic period, but even previous to the Aryan separation. The Sanskrit kshurá is the Greek ξυρός or ξυρόν. In the Veda we have clear allusions to shaving:

Note 4. I translate kshurá by sharp edges, but it might have been translated literally by razors, for, strange as it may sound, razors were known, not only during the Vedic period, but even previous to the Aryan separation. The Sanskrit kshurá is the Greek ξυρός or ξυρόν. In the Veda we have clear allusions to shaving: X, 142, 4. yadâ´ te vâ´tah anu-vâ´ti sokíh, váptâ-iva smásru vapasi prá bhû´ma. When the wind blows after thy blast, then thou shavest the earth as a barber shaves the beard. Cf. I, 65, 4. If, as B. and R. suggest, vaptar, barber, is connected with the more modern name for barber in Sanskrit, viz. nâpita. we should have to admit a root svap, in the sense of tearing or pulling, vellere, from which we might derive the Vedic svapû´ (VII, 56, 3), beak. Corresponding to this we find in Old High-German snabul, beak, (schnepfe, snipe,) and in Old Norse nef. The Anglo-Saxon neb means mouth and nose, while in modern English neb or nib is used for the bill or beak of a bird a. Another derivation of nâpita, proposed by Professor Weber (Kuhn's Beiträge, vol. i, p. 505), who takes nâpita as a dialectic form of snâpitar, balneator, or lavator, might be admitted if it could be proved that in India also the barber was at the same time a balneator. Burnouf, Lotus, p. 452, translating from the Sâmañña-phala Sutta, mentions among the different professions of the people those of 'portier,' 'barbier,' and 'baigneur.'

Verse 11. Note 1. Ví-bhûtayah is properly a substantive, meaning p. 236 power, but, like other substantives a, and particularly substantives with prepositions, it can be used as an adjective, and is, in fact, more frequently used as an adjective than as a substantive. In English we may translate it by power. It is a substantive, I, 8, 9. evá hí te ví-bhûtayah ûtáyah indra mâ´-vate sadyáh kit sánti dâsúshe. For indeed thy powers, O Indra, are at once shelters for a sacrificer, like me. But it is an adjective, I, 30, 5. ví-bhûtih astu sûnrítâ. May the prayer be powerful. VI, 17, 4. mahâ´m ánûnam tavásam ví-bhûtim matsarâ´sah garhrishanta pra-sáham. The sweet draughts of Soma delighted the great, the perfect, the strong, the powerful, the unyielding Indra. Cf. VIII, 49, 6; 50, 6. Vibhvãh, with the Svarita on the last syllable, has to be pronounced vibhúàh. In III, 6, 9, we find vi-bhávah. Note 2. See I, 87, 1, note 1, page 160. Note 3. See I, 6, 5, note 1, page 41. Verse 12. Note 1. Mahi-tvanám, greatness, is formed by the suffix tvaná, which Professor Aufrecht has identified with the Greek σύνη (συνον); see Kuhn's Zeitschrift, vol. i, p. 482. The origin of this suffix has been explained by Professor Benfey, ibid. vol. vii, p. 120, who traces it back to the suffix tvan, for instance, i-tvan, goer, in prâtah-ítvâ = prâtah-yâ´vâ. Note 2. Vratá is one of the many words which, though we may perceive their one central idea, and their original purport, we have to translate by various terms in order to make them intelligible in every passage where they occur. Vratá (from vri, vrinoti), I believe, meant originally what is enclosed, protected, set apart, the Greek νομός:

Note 2. Vratá is one of the many words which, though we may perceive their one central idea, and their original purport, we have to translate by various terms in order to make them intelligible in every passage where they occur. Vratá (from vri, vrinoti), I believe, meant originally what is enclosed, protected, set apart, the Greek νομός: 1. V, 46, 7. yâ´h pâ´rthivâsah yâ´h apâ´m ápi vraté tâ´h nah devîh su-havâh sárma yakkhata. p. 237 O ye gracious goddesses, who are on the earth or in the realm of the waters, grant us your protection! Here vratá is used like vrigána, see I, 165, 15, note 3, page 208. X, 114, 2. tâ´sâm ní kikyuh kaváyah ni-dâ´nam páreshu yâ´h gúhyeshu vratéshu. The poets discovered their (the Nirritis’) origin, who are in the far hidden chambers. I, 163, 3. ási tritáh gúhyena vraténa. Thou art Trita within the hidden place, or with the secret work. Dr. Muir sent me another passage: III, 54, 5. dádrisre eshâm avamâ´ sádâmsi páreshu yâ´ gúhyeshu vratéshu. 2. Vratá means what is fenced off or forbidden, what is determined, what is settled, and hence, like dhárman, law, ordinance. Vârayati means to prohibit. In this sense vratá occurs very frequently: I, 25, 1. yát kit hí te vísah yathâ prá deva varuna vratám, minîmási dyávi-dyavi. Whatever law of thine we break, O Varuna, day by day, men as we are. II, 8, 3. yásya vratám ni mî´yate. Whose law is not broken. III, 32, 8. índrasya kárma sú-kritâ purû´ni vratâ´ni devâ´h ná minanti vísve.

III, 32, 8. índrasya kárma sú-kritâ purû´ni vratâ´ni devâ´h ná minanti vísve. The deeds of Indra are well done and many, all the gods do not break his laws, or do not injure his ordinances. II, 24, 12. vísvam satyám maghavânâ yuvóh ít â´pah kaná prá minanti vratám vâm. All that is yours, O powerful gods, is true; even the waters do not break your law. II, 38, 7. nákih asya tâ´ni vratâ´ devásya savitúh minanti. No one breaks these laws of this god Savitar. Cf. II, 38, 9. I, 92, 12. áminatî daívyâni vratâ´ni. Not injuring the divine ordinances. Cf. I, 124, 2. X, 12, 5. kát asya áti vratám kakrima. Which of his laws have we overstepped? p. 238 VIII, 25, 16. tásya vratâ´ni ánu vah karâmasi. His ordinances we follow. X, 33, 9. ná devâ´nâm áti vratám sati-âtmâ kaná gîvati. No one lives beyond the statute of the gods, even if he had a hundred lives. VII, 5, 4. táva tri-dhâ´tu prithivî´ utá dyaúh vaísvânara vratám agne sakanta. The earth and the sky followed thy threefold law, O Agni Vaisvânara. VII, 87, 7. yáh mriláyâti kakrúshe kit â´gah vayám syâma várune ánâgâh, ánu vratâ´ni áditeh ridhántah. Let us be sinless before Varuna, who is gracious even to him who has committed sin, performing the laws of Aditi! II, 28, 8. námah purâ´ te varuna utá nûnám utá aparám tuvi-gâta bravâma, tvé hí kam párvate ná sritâ´ni áprakyutâni duh-dabha vratâ´ni. Formerly, and now, and also in future let us give praise to thee, O Varuna; for in thee, O unconquerable, all laws are grounded, immovable as on a rock.

Formerly, and now, and also in future let us give praise to thee, O Varuna; for in thee, O unconquerable, all laws are grounded, immovable as on a rock. A very frequent expression is ánu vratám, according to the command of a god, II, 38, 3; 6; VIII, 40, 8; or simply ánu vratám, according to law and order: I, 136, 5. tám aryamâ´ abhí rakshati rigu-yántam ánu vratám. Aryaman protects him who acts uprightly according to law. Cf. III, 61, 1; IV, 13, 2; V, 69, 1. 3. The laws or ordinances or institutions of the gods are sometimes taken for the sacrifices which are supposed to be enjoined by the gods, and the performance of which is, in a certain sense, the performance of the divine will. I, 93, 8. yáh agnî´shómâ havíshâ saparyâ´t devadrî´kâ mánasâ yáh ghriténa, tásya vratám rakshatam pâtám ámhasah. He who worships Agni and Soma with oblations, with a godly mind, or with an offering, protect his sacrifice, shield him from evil! I, 31, 2. tvám agne prathamáh áṅgirah-tamah kavíh devâ´nâm pári bhûshasi vratám. p. 239 Agni, the first and wisest of poets, thou performest the sacrifice of the gods. III, 3, 9. tásya vratâ´ni bhûri-poshínah vayám úpa bhûshema dáme â´ suvriktí-bhih. Let us, who possess much wealth, perform with prayers the sacrifices of Agni within our house. In another acceptation the vratas of the gods are what they perform and establish themselves, their own deeds: III, 6, 5. vratâ´ te agne mahatáh mahâ´ni táva krátvâ ródasî (íti) â´ tatantha.

III, 6, 5. vratâ´ te agne mahatáh mahâ´ni táva krátvâ ródasî (íti) â´ tatantha. The deeds of thee, the great Agni, are great, by thy power thou hast stretched out heaven and earth. VIII, 42, 1. ástabhnât dyâ´m ásurah visvá-vedâh ámimîta varimâ´nam prithivyâ´h, a asîdat vísvâ bhúvanâni sam-râ´t vísvâ ít tâ´ni várunasya vratâ´ni. The wise spirit established the sky, and made the width of the earth, as king he approached all beings,—all these are the works of Varuna. VI, 14, 3. tû´rvantah dásyum âyávah vrataíh sî´kshantah avratám. Men fight the fiend, trying to overcome by their deeds him who performs no sacrifices; or, the lawless enemy. Lastly, vratá comes to mean sway, power, or work, and the expression vraté táva signifies, at thy command, under thy auspices: I, 24, 15. átha vayám âditya vraté táva ánâgasah áditaye syâma. Then, O Âditya, under thy auspices may we be guiltless before Aditi. VI, 54, 9. pû´shan táva vraté vayám ni rishyema kádâ kaná. O Pûshan, may we never fail under thy protection. X, 36, 13. ye savitûh satyá-savasya vísve mitrásya vraté várunasya devâ´h. All the gods who are in the power of Savitar, Mitra, and Varuna. V, 83, 5. yásya vraté prithivî´ námnamîti yásya vraté saphá-vat gárbhurîti, yásya vraté óshadhîh visvá-rûpâh sáh nah parganya máhi sárma yakkha. p. 240 At whose bidding the earth bows down, at whose bidding hoofed animals run about, at whose bidding the plants assume all shapes, mayest thou, O Parganya, yield us great protection!

At whose bidding the earth bows down, at whose bidding hoofed animals run about, at whose bidding the plants assume all shapes, mayest thou, O Parganya, yield us great protection! Note 3. Dâtrá, if derived from dâ, would mean gift, and that meaning is certainly the most applicable in some passages where it occurs: IX, 97, 55. ási bhágah ási dâtrásya dâtâ´. Thou art Bhaga, thou art the giver of the gift. In other passages, too, particularly in those where the verb dâ or some similar verb occurs in the same verse, it can hardly be doubted that the poet took dâtrá, like dátra or dáttra, in the sense of gift, bounty, largess: I, 116, 6. yám asvinâ dadáthuh svetám ásvam—tát vâm dâtrám máhi kîrtényam bhût. The white horse, O Asvins, which you gave, that your gift was great and to be praised. I, 185, 3. aneháh dâtrám áditeh anarvám huvé. I call for the unrivalled, the uninjured bounty of Aditi. VII, 56, 21. mâ´ vah dâtrâ´t marutah níh arâma. May we not fall away from your bounty, O Maruts! III, 54, 16. yuvám hí stháh rayi-daú nah rayînâ´m dâtrám rakshethe. For you, Nâsatyas, are our givers of riches, you protect the gift. VI, 20, 7. rigísvane dâtrám dâsúshe dâh. To Rigisvan, the giver, thou givest the gift. VIII, 43, 33. tát te sahasva îmahe dâtrám yát ná upadásyati, tvát agne vâ´ryam vásu. We ask thee, strong hero, for the gift which does not perish; we ask from thee the precious wealth.

We ask thee, strong hero, for the gift which does not perish; we ask from thee the precious wealth. X, 69, 4. dâtrám rakshasva yát idám te asmé (íti). Protect this gift of thine which thou hast given to us. VIII, 44, 18. î´sishe vâ´ryasya hí dâtrásya agne svãh-patih. For thou, O Agni, lord of heaven, art the master of the precious gift. Cf. IV, 38, 1. Professor Roth considers that dâtrá is derived rather from dâ, to divide, and that it means share, lot, possession. But there is not a single passage where the meaning of gift or p. 241 bounty does not answer all purposes. In VII, 56, 21, mâ´ vah dâtrâ´t marutah níh arâma, is surely best translated by, 'let us not fall away from your bounty,' and in our own passage the same meaning should be assigned to dâtrá. The idea of dâtrá, bounty, is by no means incompatible with vratá, realm, dominion, sway, if we consider that the sphere within which the bounty of a king or a god is exercised and accepted, is in one sense his realm. What the poet therefore says in our passage is simply this, that the bounty of the Maruts extends as far as the realm of Aditi, i. e. is endless, or extends everywhere, Aditi being in its original conception the deity of the unbounded world beyond, the earliest attempt at expressing the Infinite. As to dâ´tra occurring once with the accent on the first syllable in the sense of sickle, see M. M., 'Über eine Stelle in Yâska's Commentar zum Naighantuka,' Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 1853, vol. vii, P. 375.

As to dâ´tra occurring once with the accent on the first syllable in the sense of sickle, see M. M., 'Über eine Stelle in Yâska's Commentar zum Naighantuka,' Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 1853, vol. vii, P. 375. VIII, 78, 10. táva ít indra ahám â-sásâ háste dâ´tram kaná â´ dade. Trusting in thee alone, O Indra, I take the sickle in my hand. This dâ´tra, sickle, is derived from do, to cut. Aditi, the Infinite. Note 4. Aditi, an ancient god or goddess, is in reality the earliest name invented to express the Infinite; not the Infinite as the result of a long process of abstract reasoning, but the visible Infinite, visible, as it were, to the naked eye, the endless expanse beyond the earth, beyond the clouds, beyond the sky. That was called A-diti, the un-bound, the un-bounded; one might almost say, but for fear of misunderstandings, the Absolute, for it is derived from diti, bond, and the negative particle, and meant therefore originally what is free from bonds of any kind, whether of space or time, free from physical weakness, free from moral guilt. Such a conception became of necessity a being, a person, a god. To us such a name and such a conception seem decidedly modern, and to find in the Veda Aditi, the p. 242 [paragraph continues] Infinite, as the mother of the principal gods, is certainly, at first sight, startling. But the fact is that the thoughts of primitive humanity were not only different from our thoughts, but different also from what we think their thoughts ought to have been. The poets of the Veda indulged freely in theogonic speculations, without being frightened by any contradictions. They knew of Indra as the greatest of gods, they knew of Agni as the god of gods, they knew of Varuna as the ruler of all, but they were by no means startled at the idea that their Indra had a mother, or that their Agni was born like a babe from the friction of two fire-sticks, or that Varuna and his brother Mitra were nursed in the lap of Aditi. Some poet would take hold o the idea of an unbounded power, of Aditi, originally without any reference to other gods. Very soon these ideas met, and, without any misgivings, either the gods were made subordinate to, and represented as the sons of Aditi, or where Indra was to be praised as supreme, Aditi was represented as doing him homage.

VIII, 12, 14. utá sva-râge áditih stómam índrâya gîganat. And Aditi produced a hymn for Indra, the king. Here Professor Roth takes Aditi as an epithet of Agni, not as the name of the goddess Aditi, while Dr. Muir rightly takes it in the latter sense, and likewise retains stómam instead of sómam, as printed by Professor Aufrecht. Cf. VII, 38, 4. The idea of the Infinite, as I have tried to show elsewhere, was most powerfully impressed on the awakening mind, or, as we now say, was revealed, by the East a. ‘It is impossible to enter fully into all the thoughts and feelings that passed through the minds of the early poets when they formed names for that far, far East from whence even the early dawn, the sun, the day, their own life, seemed to spring. A new life flashed up every morning before their eyes, and the fresh breezes of the dawn reached them like greetings from the distant lands beyond the mountains, beyond the clouds, beyond the dawn, beyond “the immortal p. 243 sea which brought us hither.” The dawn seemed to them to open golden gates for the sun to pass in triumph, and while those gates were open, their eyes and their mind strove in their childish way to pierce beyond the limits of this finite world. That silent aspect awakened in the human mind the conception of the Infinite, the Immortal, the Divine.’ Aditi is a name for that distant East, but Aditi is more than the dawn. Aditi is beyond the dawn, and in one place (I, 113, 19) the dawn is called 'the face of Aditi,' áditer ánîkam. Thus we read:

V, 62, 8. híranya-rûpam ushásah ví-ushtau áyah-sthûnam út-itâ sû´ryasya, â´ rohathah varuna mitra gártam átah kakshâthe (íti) áditim dítim h. Mitra and Varuna, you mount your chariot, which is golden, when the dawn bursts forth, and has iron poles at the setting of the sun: from thence you see Aditi and Diti, i. e. what is yonder and what is here. If we keep this original conception of Aditi clearly before our mind, the various forms which Aditi assumes, even in the hymns of the Veda, will not seem incoherent. Aditi is not a prominent deity in the Veda, she is celebrated rather in her sons, the Âdityas, than in her own person. While there are so many hymns addressed to Ushas, the dawn, or Indra, or Agni, or Savitar, there is but one hymn, X, 72, which from our point of view, though not from that of Indian theologians, might be called a hymn to Aditi. Nevertheless Aditi is a familiar name; a name of the past, whether in time or in thought only, and a name that lives on in the name of the Âdityas, the sons of Aditi, including the principal deities of the Veda. Aditi and the Âdityas. Thus we read: I, 107, 2. ûpa nah devâ´h ávasâ â´ gamantu áṅgirasâm sâ´ma-bhih stûyámânâh, índrah indriyaíh marûtah marút-bhih âdityaíh nah áditih sárma yamsat. May the gods come to us with their help, praised by the songs of the Aṅgiras,—Indra with his powers, the Maruts with the storms, may Aditi with the Âdityas give us protection!