Chapter II. Self-Development

In the "Li Ki," in more prosaic but not less striking fashion, the aspirations which are justifiable, honourable, and beneficial for a man are detailed, thus: "There are three things that occasion sorrow to a superior man. If there be a subject of which he has not heard, and he do not hear of it; if he hear of it, and do not come to learn it; p. 87 if he learn it but have no chance to practise it. There are five things that occasion the superior man humiliation. If in office and unfamiliar with its duties; if familiar with them but not carrying them into practice; if once in office and then dismissed; if in charge of a large territory but not well populated; if anybody with the same duties do better than he." (Li Ki, bk. xviii., 20.) In the "Yi King" (appendix iii., sect. ii., c. v., 37), Confucius sharply contrasts this with the sordid, self-destroying motives of the inferior man, thus: "The inferior man is not ashamed of what is not benevolent nor does he fear to do what is not righteous. Without the prospect of gain he does not stimulate himself to what is good, nor does he correct himself without being moved." The attitude which should be taken toward these incentives, usually so powerful, the sage thus presents: "Riches and honours are what men desire. If it cannot be brought about in the proper way, they should not be held. Poverty and meanness are what men dislike. If it cannot be brought about in the proper way, they should not be avoided." (Analects, bk. iv., c. v., v. 1.)

The attitude which should be taken toward these incentives, usually so powerful, the sage thus presents: "Riches and honours are what men desire. If it cannot be brought about in the proper way, they should not be held. Poverty and meanness are what men dislike. If it cannot be brought about in the proper way, they should not be avoided." (Analects, bk. iv., c. v., v. 1.) Yet Confucius deemed it self-evidently a desirable thing that one's merit should be recognized and a thing almost incredible that true merit should go unrecognized. But he urged that this should be regarded as but an incident and not as the object to be aimed at and striven for. Instead, the labour must be primarily to serve one's fellowman p. 88 and to develop one's self. Notoriety and genuine distinction he discussed in the following: "The Master said, 'What is it you call being distinguished?' Tsze-chang replied, 'It is to be heard of through the state, to be heard of through the family.' The Master said: 'That is notoriety, not distinction. The man of distinction is substantial and straightforward and loves uprightness. He examines people's words and looks into their countenances. He is anxious to defer to others. Such a man will be distinguished in the country; he will be distinguished in the family. As to the man of notoriety, he assumes the appearance of virtue but his actions belie it, and he rests in this character without any doubts about himself. Such a man will be heard of in the country; he will be heard of in the family.'" (Analects, bk. xii., c. xx.)

There is one sort of aspiration for fame which Confucius said that he himself did not possess: "To live in obscurity and to practise wonders, in order to be mentioned with honour in future ages—this is what I do not do." (Doctrine of the Mean, c. xi., v. i.) Yet it is by no means his opinion that only they who by their virtues deserve to be known or even to be loved, receive the acclaim of the multitude. This but raises the question whether the man is really worthy or has merely deceived and misled the people. Confucius says that it but puts one upon inquiry, thus: "When the multitude p. 89 hate a man, it is necessary to examine into the case. When the multitude like a man, it is necessary to examine into the case." (Analects, bk. xv., c. xxvii.) This he explains more fully at another time in the following colloquy: "Tsze-kung asked, saying, 'What do you say of a man who is loved by all the people of his village?' The Master replied, 'We may not for that accord our approval of him.' 'And what do you say of him who is hated by all the people of his village?' The Master said, 'We may not for that conclude that he is bad. It is better than either of these cases that the good in the village love him, and the bad hate him.'" (Analects, bk. xiii., c. xxiv.) Confucius could not enough condemn the doing of any act for the mere purpose of obtaining the approval of men or of winning the laurels of fame. The aim must be the accomplishment of the work or service, itself. This he has said in many passages, among them these: "If doing what is to be done be made the first business and success a secondary consideration, is not this the way to exalt virtue?" (Analects, bk. xii., c. xxi., v. 3.) "In ancient times men learned with a view to their own improvement. Nowadays, men learn with a view to the approbation of others." (Analects, bk. xiv., c. xxv.) "The man of virtue makes the difficulty to be overcome his first business and success only a subsequent consideration." (Analects, bk. vi., c. xx.)

p. 90 The true spirit of the man with an exalted aim he thus depicts: "Though he may be all unknown, unregarded by the world, he feels no regret." (Doctrine of the Mean, c. xi., v. 3.) In the "Yi King" (appendix iv., sect. i., c. ii., 6) Confucius recurs to it thus: "He occupies a high position without pride and a low position without anxiety." And in the "Li Ki" with greater circumstantiality the indifference and unconcern of the superior man toward mere worldly rewards or failure to obtain them, and his complete immunity from evil result of either of these things, are thus portrayed: "The scholar is not cast down or uprooted by poverty and a mean condition; he is not elated or enervated by riches and an exalted condition." (Bk. xxxviii., 19.) Yet, not utterly is ambition for worldly honours discouraged; for in the "Doctrine of the Mean," in a passage already once quoted, and which Chinese scholars deem to refer to Confucius himself, the prospect of the man who pursues the path of the mean is thus apostrophized: "Wherever ships and carriages reach, wherever the strength of man penetrates, wherever the heavens overshadow and the earth sustains, wherever the sun and moon shine, wherever frosts and dews fall, all who have blood and breath unfeignedly honour and love him." (Doctrine of the Mean, c. xxxi., v. 3.) And, although the words, "I desire nothing but rightly to die," are ascribed to Tsang-tse,

And, although the words, "I desire nothing but rightly to die," are ascribed to Tsang-tse, p. 91 when dying (Li Ki, bk. ii., sect. i., pt. i., 18), Confucius himself has said: "The superior man dislikes the thought of his name not being mentioned after his death." (Analects, bk. xv., c. xix.) Prudence. "If a man take no thought about what is distant, he will find sorrow near at hand." (Analects, bk. xv., c. xi.) In the "Yi King" (appendix iii., sect. ii., c. v., 39), the wisdom of prudence and of foresight, thus vividly presented in the "Analects," is enforced by the Master in these maxims: "He who keeps danger in mind, is he who will rest safe in his seat; he who keeps ruin in mind, is he who will preserve his interests secure; he who sets the danger of disorder before him, is he who will maintain order." And in the "Shu King" Yueh is represented as urging thoughtful care, by these words: "For all affairs let there be adequate preparation; with preparation there will be no calamitous issue." (Pt. iv., bk. viii., sect. ii., 1.) Of the same nature is this injunction from the "Li Ki" (bk. xv., 22): "Do not commence or abandon anything hastily." Though far from teaching that the aim of the superior man should be the acquisition of wealth, and though insistent upon the view that this depends so much more upon fortune than upon the desert, or even the scheming, of individuals, Confucius, as in the foregoing, pleads always for the use of foresight and prudence in the ordinary

Though far from teaching that the aim of the superior man should be the acquisition of wealth, and though insistent upon the view that this depends so much more upon fortune than upon the desert, or even the scheming, of individuals, Confucius, as in the foregoing, pleads always for the use of foresight and prudence in the ordinary p. 92 affairs of life. Thus he places among the cardinal qualities of the superior man reverent attention to business. (Analects, bk. xvi., c. x.) Yet he rarely discoursed upon this subject nor, indeed, upon the part of Heaven in determining the good or ill fortune which attends man; and that this is not true only of the sayings which have come down to us, is shown by this statement of his disciples: "The subjects of which the Master seldom spoke were: profitableness, also the appointments of Heaven and perfect virtue." (Analects, bk. ix., c. i.) That the sordid pursuit of wealth is to be avoided he indicated in these words already quoted: "Riches and honour are what men desire. If it cannot be brought about in the proper way, they should not be held. Poverty and meanness are what men dislike. If it cannot be brought about in the proper way, they should not be avoided." (Analects, bk. iv., c. v., v. 1.) This he also said again and again, as in this contrast: "The mind of the superior man is conversant with righteousness; the mind of the average man is conversant with gain " (Analects, bk. iv., c. xvi.); and in another place he names as one of the qualities of "the complete man" that, "in view of gain," he "thinks of righteousness." (Analects, bk. xiv., c. xiii., v. 2.)

This he also said again and again, as in this contrast: "The mind of the superior man is conversant with righteousness; the mind of the average man is conversant with gain " (Analects, bk. iv., c. xvi.); and in another place he names as one of the qualities of "the complete man" that, "in view of gain," he "thinks of righteousness." (Analects, bk. xiv., c. xiii., v. 2.) He teaches that "riches and honours depend upon Heaven" (Analects, bk. xii., c. v., v. 3); notwithstanding which, prudence and industry p. 93 will, in a well-governed country, insure a competence. Wherefore he says: "When a country is well governed, poverty and a mean condition are things to be ashamed of. When a country is ill governed, riches and honour are things to be ashamed of." (Analects, bk. viii., c. xiii., v. 3.) To nothing would his proverb, "To go beyond is as bad as to fall short" (Analects, bk. xi., c. xiv., v. 3), apply more aptly than to expenditure, of which he also sagely remarks (Analects, bk. vii., c. xxxv.): "Extravagance leads to insubordination and parsimony to meanness. It is better to be mean than to be insubordinate"—though, obviously, best of all to be neither. As regards the pursuit of wealth, Confucius spoke, for himself, thus: "If the search for riches were sure to be successful, though I should become a groom with whip in hand to get them, I would do so. As the search may not be successful, I will pursue that which I desire." (Analects, bk. vii., c. xi.)

As regards the pursuit of wealth, Confucius spoke, for himself, thus: "If the search for riches were sure to be successful, though I should become a groom with whip in hand to get them, I would do so. As the search may not be successful, I will pursue that which I desire." (Analects, bk. vii., c. xi.) Resignation to the appointments of Heaven in this regard, and the greater desirability that more worthy ambitions be dominant, are urged in this striking passage: "There is Hwuy! He has nearly attained to perfect virtue. He is often in want." (Analects, bk. xi., c. xviii.) That riches is not that to which the soul of the superior man aspires, he affirms in these words, already quoted in another connection: "The superior man is anxious lest he should not get truth: p. 94 he is not anxious lest poverty should come upon him." (Analects, bk. xv., c. xxxi.) This version of "Riches takes unto itself wings" is given by the commentator in "The Great Learning": "Wealth, got by improper means, will take its departure in the same way." (C. x., v. 10.) Among the "three things which the superior man guards against," he names avarice, saying: "In youth, when the physical powers are not yet settled, he guards against lust. When he is strong, and the physical powers are full of vigour, he guards against quarrelsomeness. When he is old, and the animal powers are decayed, he guards against covetousness." (Analects, bk. xvi., c. vii.)

Among the "three things which the superior man guards against," he names avarice, saying: "In youth, when the physical powers are not yet settled, he guards against lust. When he is strong, and the physical powers are full of vigour, he guards against quarrelsomeness. When he is old, and the animal powers are decayed, he guards against covetousness." (Analects, bk. xvi., c. vii.) Though duties, corresponding to their ill fortune or good fortune, rest upon the poor and upon the rich, Confucius deems it much harder for the impoverished man to possess his soul and act according to propriety; of this he says: "To be poor without murmuring is difficult. To be rich without pride is easy." (Analects, bk. xiv., c. xi.) The imprudence, not to speak of the immorality, of acting in a purely selfish manner, is shown in this: "He who acts with a constant view to his own advantage will be much murmured against." (Analects, bk. iv., c. xii.) This, however, is not limited to financial dealings, but applies as well to all other exactions; as to which the sage shrewdly observes: "He who requires much from himself and little from others, p. 95 will keep himself from being the object of resentment." (Analects, bk. xv., c. xiv.) It is also the part of prudence as early as possible to guard against speech and conduct which cause dislike; for, as the sage somewhat sweepingly asserts: "When a man at forty is the object of dislike, he will always continue what he is." (Analects, bk. xvii., c. xxvi.)

It is also the part of prudence as early as possible to guard against speech and conduct which cause dislike; for, as the sage somewhat sweepingly asserts: "When a man at forty is the object of dislike, he will always continue what he is." (Analects, bk. xvii., c. xxvi.) The same idea, but a different application of it, is presented in this wise saying from the "Shu King" (pt. v., bk. xxi., 2) attributed to King Khang: "Seek not every quality in one individual!" And this vivid picture of the foredoomed failure of the ambitious but imprudent man Confucius gives in the "Yi King" (appendix iii., sect. ii., c. v., v. 40): "Virtue small and office high; wisdom small and plans great; strength small and burden heavy—where such conditions exist, it is seldom they do not end in evil." The necessity for unflinching self-examination before engaging in any important undertaking or assuming any heavy obligation, not merely as a matter of personal honesty, but also as a matter of prudence, is thus enjoined in the "Li Ki" in a passage already quoted: "For one who wished to serve his ruler, the rule was first to measure his abilities and duties and then enter on the responsibilities; he did not first enter and then measure. The same rule applied when one begged or borrowed from others or sought to enter their service." (Bk. xv., 19.) p. 96 And in the "Yi King" (appendix ii., c. xxxiii., v. 4) this caution and this self-restraint are thus appreciated: "A superior man retires, notwithstanding his likings; an average man cannot attain to it."

And in the "Yi King" (appendix ii., c. xxxiii., v. 4) this caution and this self-restraint are thus appreciated: "A superior man retires, notwithstanding his likings; an average man cannot attain to it." This sketch of the superior man is elaborated further in the following passage in the "Analects": "He who aims to be a man of complete virtue, in his food does not seek to gratify his appetite, nor in his dwelling-place does he seek the appliances of ease; he is earnest in what he is doing, and careful in his speech; he frequents the company of men of principle that he may be rectified." (Analects, bk. i., c. xiv.) Prudence is, of course, merely the application of the same calm clear-sightedness and study of cause and effect, which the sage enjoins as the very foundation of the investigation of phenomena, upon which in turn the entire superstructure of the art of life rests. To what advantage does one refuse to recognize the stubborn facts, whether as regards himself or as regards others? Or as the sage phrases it: "Who can go out but by the door? How is it that men will not walk according to these ways?" (Analects, bk. vi., c. xv.) The need of patience and thoroughness he also repeatedly inculcates, as in this: "Do not be desirous of having things done quickly; do not look at small advantages! Desire to have things done quickly prevents their being done thoroughly. Looking at small advantages prevents great

p. 97 things being accomplished." (Analects, bk. xiii., c. xvii.) And the slow but solid achievement which attends this course is thus portrayed: "The way of the superior man may be compared with what takes place in travelling, when to go to a distance we must first traverse the space that is near and when in ascending a height we must first begin from the lower ground." (Doctrine of the Mean, C. xv., v. 1.)